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List of massacres in China

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The following is a list of massacres that have occurred in China. The massacres are grouped for different time periods.

Imperial China (before 1912)[]

Name Date (Dynasty) Location Deaths Notes
Yongjia disaster 304-316 (Jin) Luoyang 30,000, exaggerated[1] The capital was sacked in the disaster, an landmark incident in the Invasion of the Five Barbarians. The deaths of 30,000 was based on the Book of Jin compiled in 648.[1]
Yangzhou merchants massacre 760 (Tang) Yangzhou 1,000 Merchants from the Abbasid Caliphate (Arabs, Persians) were killed. It coincided with the An Lushan Rebellion.[2][3]
Guangzhou merchants massacre 878–879 (Tang) Guangzhou 7004300000000000000Tens of thousands[4] Merchants from the Abbasid Caliphate (Arabs, Persians) were killed.
Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty 1211-1234 (Song) Northern China ?
Mongol conquest of Western Xia 1225-1227 now Ningxia ?
First Sichuan massacre 1221–1264 (Song) Sichuan 70062000000000000002,000,000 est.[5] Part of Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty.
Second Sichuan massacre 1645–1646 (Qing) Sichuan 70061000000000000001,000,000 est.[5] There is no reliable figure, but estimated 1 million out of 3 million Sichuanese were massacred mainly by the army of Zhang Xianzhong.[5]
Yangzhou massacre 1645 (Qing) Yangzhou 300,000 (modern estimate)[6] The Yangzhou massacre in May, 1645 in Yangzhou, Qing dynasty China, refers to the mass killings of innocent civilians by Manchu and defected northern Chinese soldiers, commanded by the Manchu general Dodo. The massacre is described in a contemporary account, A Record of Ten Days in Yangzhou, by Wang Xiuchu
Three massacres in Jiading 1645 (Qing) Jiading District 100,000[7] Any Han Chinese male living in Jiading who refused to Tifayifu was slaughtered by the Eight Banners.
Jinhua massacre 1646 (Qing) Jinhua 60,000 Any Han Chinese male living in Jinhua who refused to Tifayifu was slaughtered by the Eight Banners.
Dzungar genocide 1755–1757 (Qing) Dzungar Khanate 7005540000000000000480,000[8] Manchus Qing army slaughtered 80% Oriat Mongols.
Dungan Revolt 1862-1873 (Qing) Provinces of Shaanxi and Gansu ? Due to a combination of massacres, famine, war/famine migration and corpse-transmitted plague,[9] Gansu lost 74.5% (14.55 million)[10] of its population while Shaanxi lost 44.6% (6.2 million)[9] of its population. Not all "loss" were massacres.
Port Arthur massacre 1894, 21 November (Qing) Lüshunkou, Liaoning 70036000000000000002600–20,000 2,600 civilians were slaughtered within the city, while those slaughtered in the hills surrounding the city had no reliable count. In November 1948, the Chinese Communist Party built a cemetery and marked the total deaths to be 20,000, which include soldiers killed in action and fleeing soldiers disguised as civilians. The 20,000 figure became the orthodox figure in communist sources.[11]
Second Dungan Revolt 1895-1896 (Qing) Provinces of Qinghai and Gansu 100,000 Second Dungan Revolt (Chinese: 乙未河湟事变) was a rebellion of various Chinese Muslim ethnic groups in Qinghai and Gansu against the Qing dynasty, that originated because of a violent dispute between two Sufi orders of the same sect. The Wahhabi-inspired Yihewani organization then joined in and encouraged the revolt, which was crushed by loyalist Muslims.

In Xunhua, Qinghai, masses of Hui, Dongxiang, Bao'an, and Salars were incited to revolt against the Qing by the Multicoloured Mosque leader Ma Yonglin. Soldiers were ordered to destroy the rebels by Brigadier General Tang Yanhe. Ma Dahan arranged a deal with the fellow Dongxiang Ma Wanfu when rebelling against the Qing dynasty. In Hezhou, Didao, and Xunhua they directed their adherents to join the rebellion.

Republic of China (since 1912)[]

1912–1937[]

Name Date Location Victims Notes
Shanghai massacre of 1927 1927, 12 April Shanghai 70031200000000000001200 300–400 direct deaths. 5000 missing
Kuomintang anti-communist massacre 1928 Nationwide in China 700510000000000000040,643~310,000[12] Mass executions of both alleged and actual communists by the nationalist Kuomintang.
Communist purge in Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet 1931-1935 Provinces of Jiangxi and Fujian 7005700000000000000<700,000[13][better source needed] According to census, 700,000 died in the 15 counties under the Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet. Some scholars attribute all the deaths to the regime.[13]
Kizil massacre 1933, June near Kashgar, Xinjiang 7002800000000000000800
Kashgar massacre 1934 Kashgar, Xinjiang 70034000000000000002,000-8,000 Turkic Muslim separatist warfare

1937–1945 (Sino-Japanese War)[]

See also: Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II
Name Date Location Victims Notes
Nanjing Massacre 1937, 13 December Nanjing, Jiangsu 7005150000000000000 100,000~200,000 40,000 were massacred within Nanjing City Walls, mostly within the first five days; while the total victims massacred as of the end of March 1938 in both Nanjing and its surrounding six rural counties "far exceed 100,000 but fall short of 200,000".[14][15]
Three Alls Policy 1940-1942 North China 70062700000000000002,700,000 Scorched earth policy conducted by Japanese military.
Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign 1942, 15 May – 4 September Provinces of Zhejiang and Jiangxi 7005250000000000000250,000 Conducted by Japanese military as retaliation for Chinese civilians giving shelter to American pilots after the Doolittle Raid.
Yan'an Rectification Movement 1942-1945 Yan'an, Shaanxi 10,000[16] Launched by Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party. Regarded by many as the origin of Mao Zedong's cult of personality.
Changjiao massacre 1943, 9–12 May Changjiao, Hunan 700430000000000000030,000 Conducted by the Japanese military

1945–1949 (Civil War)[]

See also: Chinese Civil War
Name Location Date Victims Notes
February 28 incident Taiwan Province 1947, 28 February – 16 May 20,000 to 28,000 Beginning of the White Terror campaign. The Chinese Kuomintang-led government imposed martial law until 1987.
Siege of Changchun Jilin Province 1948, 23 May – 19 October 1948 120,000 to 160,000 civilian deaths due to starvation[17][18][19] In the siege, in order to exhaust the food supply of the defenders, the communist rebels did not let civilians evacuate until very late so that the civilians and the defending government troops competed for food.

1949–present[]

Name Date Location Victims Notes
Lieyu massacre 1987, 7–8 March Fujian Province 19 Targeted Vietnamese boat people. Conducted by the Republic of China Army.

People's Republic of China (since 1949)[]

1949–1966[]

See also: Great Chinese Famine
Name Date Location Victims Notes
Chinese land reform 1949–1953 Nationwide 1,000,000 – 4,700,000[20] Launched by Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Liquidation of the landlord class in struggle sessions.
Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries 1950–1953 Nationwide 712,000 – 2,000,000[21][22] Launched by Mao Zedong and CCP.
Three-anti and Five-anti campaigns 1951–1952 Nationwide Exact death toll is unknown. In Shanghai alone, from 25 January to 1 April 1952, at least 876 people committed suicide.[23][24][25] Launched by Mao Zedong and CCP.
Sufan movement 1955–1957 Nationwide 53,000[26][27] Launched by Mao Zedong and CCP
Anti-Rightist Campaign 1957–1959 Nationwide Exact death toll is unknown. Official statistics shows that at least 550,000 people were purged and many died.[28][29][30] Launched by Mao Zedong and CCP.
Xunhua Incident 1958 Qinghai 435 The massacre was conducted by People's Liberation Army towards local civilians.[31]
1959 Tibetan uprising 1959 Tibet 87,000[32][33][34] The exact number of deaths has been disputed.[35]
Violence in the Great Chinese Famine 1959-1961 Nationwide 2,500,000[36][37] Killings occurred during the Great Chinese Famine.[38][39] According to Frank Dikötter, at least 2.5 million (2-3 million) people were beaten or tortured to death, which accounted for 6%-8% of the total deaths in the famine.[37][39][40]
Socialist Education Movement 1963–1965 Nationwide 77,560[41] Launched by Mao Zedong.

1966–1976 (Cultural Revolution)[]

See also: Cultural Revolution#Massacres and cannibalism

Cultural Revolution was launched by Mao Zedong in May 1966, with the help of the Cultural Revolution Group. The estimated total death toll ranges from hundreds of thousands to 20 million,[42] while massacres took place across the country. Some of the massacres occurred during the Violent Struggles (200,000-500,000 deaths), struggle sessions or political purges such as Cleansing the Class Ranks (0.5-1.5 million deaths). In total, some Chinese researchers have estimated that at least 300,000 people were killed in Cultural Revolution massacres.[43][44] Massacres in Guangxi Province and Guangdong Province were among the most serious: in Guangxi, the official annals of at least 43 counties report massacres with 15 of them recording a death toll of over 1,000, while in Guangdong at least 28 counties report massacres with 6 of them seeing over 1,000 deaths.[45][46] The following table only includes major massacres which have been well documented in literature.

Name Date Location Victims Notes
Red August August – September 1966 Beijing 1,772[47] Origin of the Red Terror in Chinese Cultural Revolution, triggering "Daxing Massacre" which killed 325 people in a few days. Statistics from 1985 showed a death toll of over 10,000 due to the Red August.[48]
Guangxi Massacre 1966–1976 Guangxi 100,000 – 150,000[49][50] Massive cannibalism occurred.[49][50]
Inner Mongolia incident 1967–1969 Inner Mongolia 16,632 – 100,000[46] Mostly Mongols.
Qinghai Massacre February 1967 Qinghai 173[46] Conducted by People's Liberation Army.[46][51]
Guangzhou Laogai Fan Incident August 1967 Guangzhou,

Guangdong

187-197[52][53] Part of the Guangdong Massacre. Caused by the rumor that Laogaifan (prisoners of Laogai) were released. Local citizens began massive killings as self-defense.[52][53]
Anti-Peng Pai Incident August 1967 Shanwei, Guangdong >160[54] Targeted the relatives of Peng Pai.
Qingtongxia Incident August 1967 Qingtongxia, Ningxia 101[46][55] Conducted by People's Liberation Army.[46][55]
Yangjiang Massacre 1967–1969 Yangjiang, Guangdong 3,573[46][56] Part of the Guangdong Massacre. Mainly in Yangjiang and Yangchun.[46][56]
Daoxian massacre August – October

1967

Daoxian, Hunan 9,093[57] Took place in more than 10 counties, mainly in Dao County.
Shaoyang County Massacre July – September

1968

Shaoyang,

Hunan

991[46][58] Influenced by Daoxian Massacre.
Dan County Massacre August 1968 Danzhou, Hainan >700[46][59] Part of the Guangdong Massacre. Over 50 thousand people were jailed and thousands were permanently disabled. Conducted by People's Liberation Army and local militias.[46][59]
Ruijin Massacre September –October 1968 Ruijin, Jiangxi >1000[46][60] Took place in Ruijin County, Xingguo County, and Yudu County.[46][60]
Zhao Jianmin Spy Case 1968–1969 Yunnan 17,000[46] Over 1.3 million people persecuted. Part of the Chinese Cultural Revolution.
Shadian Incident July – August

1975

Yunnan 1,600[61] Uprising of Hui people. Conducted by People's Liberation Army.

1976–1999[]

Name Date Location Victims Notes
Tibetan unrest 1987-1989 Tibet 10-400 Official source states the death toll between 10-20, but other estimates range from dozens to hundreds.[62]
1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre 1989, 4 June Tiananmen Square, Beijing 7002200000000000000200–10,000[63][64] Between 200 and 10,000 civilians were killed. The Red Cross states that around 2,600 died and the official Chinese government figure is 241 dead with 7,000 wounded.[65][66] Amnesty International's estimates puts the number of deaths at several hundred to close to 1,000.[67] As many as 10,000 estimated people were arrested during the protests.[68]
Thousand Island Lake robbery killings 1994, 31 March Zhejiang Province 700132000000000000032 24 Taiwanese tourists, 6 crew members, and 2 mainland Chinese passengers on board the "Hai Rui" sightseeing cruise were robbed and murdered. The incident cast a shadow over cross-strait relations.[69]
Ghulja Incident 1997, 5 February Ghulja, Xinjiang 70009000000000000009 Demonstrations in Ghulja were violently put down by police after two days of protesting. Official reports put the death toll at 9.[70]
Long wins round robbery 1998, November 15 Shanwei 700123000000000000023 Guangdong Province, Shanwei City, the territory of an armed robbery case, the Hong Kong shipping company "Changsheng" million tons of cargo ship on which 23 Chinese expatriate crew were all killed and their corpses dumped into the sea.[71]

2000–present[]

Name Date Location Victims Notes
2008 Tibetan unrest 2008, 16 March Tibet 20-150 In order to commemorate the 49th anniversary of the armed uprising on 10 March 1959, some Tibetan demonstrators protested collectively in Tibetan areas of China and parts of southern Tibet. However, it later evolved into Tibetan attacks on civilians such as Han and Hui civilians and shops, cars, the Lhasa Great Mosque and other civilian facilities.
2008 Kashgar attack 2008, 4 August Kashgar, Xinjiang 17 Two men drove an attack on the armed police of the border guard detachment of Kashgar, which was in operation. A total of 17 People's Armed Police were killed and 15 injured.
July 2009 Ürümqi riots 2009, 5 July Ürümqi 197 At first it was just a demonstration, which later evolved into a series of violent attacks by Uyghurs against non-Muslim ethnic groups such as the Han. At least more than 1,000 Uyghurs participated in the riot on the first day of the incident. A total of 197 people died, most of whom were Hans,[72] with 1,721 others injured,[73] and a large number of vehicles and buildings were destroyed.
2012 Yecheng attack 2012, 28 February Yecheng, Xinjiang 13 A group of eight Uyghur men led by religious extremist Abudukeremu Mamuti attacked pedestrians with axes and knives on Happiness Road. 7 terrorists were killed on the spot by the police, while the other one was injured and died after rescue. 1 police officer died and 4 police were injured, while 15 pedestrians died from Mamuti's assault and 14 more civilians were injured.[74]
June 2013 Shanshan riots 2013, 26 June Shanshan, Xinjiang 35 On 26 June 2013, 35 people died in the riots, including 22 civilians, two police officers and eleven attackers.
2013 Tiananmen Square attack 2013, 28 October Beijing 5 A car crashed in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, China, as a terrorist suicide attack. 5 people died in the incident; 3 inside the vehicle and 2 civilian nearby.
2014 Kunming attack 2014, 1 March Kunming 35 Eight Uighur terrorists stabbed 31 civilians to death and left 141 injured.[75] On the afternoon of 3 March, the official announced the resolution of the case. A total of 8 people were killed. Of the 5 directly involved in the attack, 4 were killed on the spot and 1 was captured on the spot.
May 2014 Ürümqi attack 2014, 22 March Ürümqi, Xinjiang 43 Two sport utility vehicles (SUVs) carrying five assailants were driven into a busy street market in Ürümqi, the capital of China's Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. Up to a dozen explosives were thrown at shoppers from the windows of the SUVs. The SUVs crashed into shoppers then collided with each other and exploded. 43 people were killed, including 4 of the assailants, and more than 90 wounded. The event was designated as a terrorist attack.
2015 Aksu colliery attack 2015, 18 September Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang >50 A group of armed separatists attacked coal miners and security personnel, murdering at least 50 people and injuring 50 others. When the local police arrived at the scene, the attacker used a truck full of coal to hit the police vehicle and then fled into the mountains. The majority of the victims of this attack were Han people.
Yema stabbings 2016, September 29 Yema, Qujing, Yunnan Province 19 Yang Qingpei killed his parents in an argument over money and then murdered 17 neighbours in an attempt to cover up his crime.

See also[]

References[]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Volume 102: 劉聰載記". Book of Jin. 648. p. 2659. "曜於是害諸王公及百官已下三萬餘人" 
  2. ↑ Wan, Lei (2017). The earliest Muslim communities in China. Qiraat. 8. Riyadh: King Faisal Center for research and Islamic Studies. p. 11. ISBN 978-603-8206-39-3. https://www.kfcris.com/en/view/post/155. 
  3. ↑ Qi, Dongfang (2010). "Gold and Silver Wares on the Belitung Shipwreck". In Krahl, Regina; Guy, John; Wilson, J. Keith et al.. Shipwrecked: Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds. Washington, DC: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution. pp. 221–227. ISBN 978-1-58834-305-5. https://asia.si.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/17Qi.pdf. 
  4. ↑ Rossabi, Morris (2013). A History of China. John Wiley & Sons. p. 198. ISBN 9781118473450. https://books.google.com/books?id=oflvAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT198. "An Arab account written by Abu Zaid of Siraf within a couple of decades of Huang's rebellion estimated that Huang's forces massacred 120,000 Muslims, Jews, and other foreigners. Arab historian al-Mas'udi, in a text written in the mid tenth century, put the figure at 200,000. Both numbers are inflated, but they nonetheless indicate that the rebels attributed some of China's problems to the exploitation of foreigners, particularly merchants." 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 James B. Parsons (May 1957). "The Culmination of a Chinese Peasant Rebellion: Chang Hsien-chung in Szechwan, 1644-46". Association for Asian Studies. pp. 387–400. Digital object identifier:10.2307/2941233. JSTOR 2941233. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?aid=7001496. 
  6. ↑ Struve (1993) (note at p. 269), following a 1964 article by Zhang Defang, notes that the entire city's population at the time was not likely to be more than 300,000, and that of the entire Yangzhou Prefecture, 800,000.
  7. ↑ "清军屠城记："扬州十日"和"嘉定三屠"-历史频道-手机搜狐". https://m.sohu.com/n/483240768/. 
  8. ↑ Geometric mean of 480 and 600 thousand rounded up to nearest ten thousand.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 路伟东 (2003年). "同治光绪年间陕西人口的损失" (in zh). 历史地理第19辑. 上海: 上海人民出版社. Archived from the original on 2009-01-01. http://yugong.fudan.edu.cn/Article/Info_View.asp?ArticleID=73. "陕西人口损失主要原因主要有以下四种：战死、饿毙、病死及逃亡。其中前两种原因造成的人口损失数量最大。战后或是灾后因为尸体腐烂、水源污染等原因，导致各地瘟疫流行。死于瘟疫的人口在全部损失的人口中占有一定的比例。" 
  10. ↑ 曹树基 (in zh). 中国人口史 卷5 清时期. p. 635. 
  11. ↑ 戚其章 (2001). "旅顺大屠杀真相再考". Archived from the original on 2022-01-16. https://web.archive.org/web/20220116180325/http://www.qinghistory.cn/qsyj/ztyj/zwgx/2006-06-27/25610.shtml. "可见，经过落实，旅顺市街被杀人数为2600至2700人。请注意：这个数字仅是指旅顺市街的被杀人数而言，并不包括逃离市街以及旅顺郊区和山区被杀的人数，同时也不包括在炮台阵地或北撤过程中阵亡的清军官兵。" 
  12. ↑ 王奇生. 党员、党权与党争: 1924-1949年中国国民党的组织形态. 上海书店出版社. Archived from the original on 2022-01-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20220115202350/https://history.sohu.com/20131202/n391086863_1.shtml. "在这场以清党为名的白色恐怖运动中，到底有多少人被捕被杀，很难有精确统计。目前所见主要有以下几种不同的统计数字：（1） 中共“六大”所作的不完全统计，1927年4月至1928年上半年，在“清党”名义下被杀害的有31万多人，其中共产党员2．6万余人。（2） 当时全国各地慈善救济机关所作的不完全统计，在1927年4月至1928年7月间，全国各省被国民党逮捕和杀害的人数总计81055人，其中被杀害者40643人，被逮捕者40412人（见附表）。（3） 《大公报》比较笼统的说法，到1930年，已有数以十万计的人被杀害。" 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Halliday, Jon; Chang, Jung (30 September 2012). Mao: The Unknown Story. p. 133. ISBN 9781448156863. https://books.google.com/books?id=L_bQX73aOvcC&pg=PA133.  The English and Chinese versions of the book had different interpretations of the statistics. The Chinese version: "中央苏区地处江西、福建。在它存在的四年中，人口在全国下降最多。根据中国人口统计，从一九三一到一九三五年，江西根据地内为中共完全控制的十五个县(不包括为中共部分控制的边缘县)，人口减少五十多万，占总人口的百分之二十。闽西根据地的减少幅度也差不多。中央苏区人口共下降七十万。由于住在这些地带的人很难外逃，这七十万基本上应属于死亡人数。毛死后的一九八三年，江西有二十三万八千八百四十四人被官方追认为“烈士”，包括战死的和肃反被杀的。" English version: The Ruijin base, the seat of the first Red state, consisted of large parts of the provinces of Jiangxi and Fujian. These two provinces suffered the greatest population decrease in the whole of China from the year when the Communist state was founded, 1931, to the year after the Reds left, 1935. The population of Red Jiangxi fell by more than half a million — a drop of 20 percent. The fall in Red Fujian was comparable. Given that escapes were few, this means that altogether some 700,000 people died in the Ruijin base. A large part of these were murdered as “class enemies,” or were worked to death, or committed suicide, or died other premature deaths attributable to the regime.
  14. ↑ Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (2008). "Leftover Problems". In Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi. The Nanking Atrocity, 1937-38: Complicating the Picture. Berghahn Books. pp. 362, 382, 384. "(p. 362) At the present stage of research, victimization estimates of under 40,000 and over 200,000 push the limits of reason, fairness, and evidence; [...] (p. 384) Japanese military sources dating from 1937, such as official battle reports and private field diaries, are the most reliable and revealing of all the sources examined here. Left by “the side that did the killing,” these documents are self-incriminating in ways that their compilers did not intend. When read critically, they attest that Japanese troops illegally and unjustifiably massacred at least 29,240 Chinese—and I would say 46,215—just before and after Nanking fell. Beyond that, there is room for honest debate. Conservatives adhere to this academically reputable low-end estimate of over 40,000. By contrast, I hold that we must add several tens of thousands more Chinese illegally and unjustifiably killed from early December 1937 to the end of March 1938 in the NSAD—the walled city and 6 adjacent counties. This is a longer time span and a wider area than conservatives and deniers will allow. Largely following Kasahara Tokushi, then, I conclude that a final victim total will far exceed 100,000 but fall short of 200,000 in the absence of new evidence. But, to repeat for emphasis, an empirically verifiable, scholarly valid victimization range is from over 40,000 to under 200,000. [...] (p. 384) However, as conservatives admit, the figure 300,000 does represent a credible total for Chinese belligerents and civilians killed in the entire Yangtze delta area from Shanghai to Nanking over the period August to December 1937." 
  15. ↑ David Askew (April 2002). "The Nanjing Incident: Recent Research and Trends". Electronic Journal of Contemporary Japanese Studies. http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/articles/Askew.html. 
  16. ↑ US Joint Publication research service. (1979). China Report: Political, Sociological and Military Affairs. Foreign Broadcast information Service. No ISBN digitized text March 5, 2007
  17. ↑ "长春国军防守经过". Central Daily News. Nanjing: Kuomintang. 1948-10-24. "据最低估计，长春四周匪军前线野地里，从6月末到10月初，四个月中，前后堆积男女老少尸骨不下15万具" 
  18. ↑ 段克文 (1978). 戰犯自述. New York City: World Journal. https://books.google.com/books?id=ajE2AQAAIAAJ&q=長春餓死. "除了共產黨夏初開始圍城,封鎖不嚴,利用各種方法逃生,至多不過廿萬人外,我計算一下,長春餓死的約有十六萬人。記得長春被圍開始時還有四十幾萬人,到失守時僅剩六、七萬人。" 
  19. ↑ 尚传道 (1985). "长春困守纪事". In Subcommittee of Cultural and Historical Data of the CPPCC. 辽沈战役亲历记:原国民党将领的回忆. Beijing. "根据人民政府进城后确实统计……饿、病而死的长春市民共达十二万人" 
  20. ↑ Strauss, Valerie; Southerl, Daniel (17 July 1994). "HOW MANY DIED? NEW EVIDENCE SUGGESTS FAR HIGHER NUMBERS FOR THE VICTIMS OF MAO ZEDONG'S ERA" (in en-US). ISSN 0190-8286. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1994/07/17/how-many-died-new-evidence-suggests-far-higher-numbers-for-the-victims-of-mao-zedongs-era/01044df5-03dd-49f4-a453-a033c5287bce/. 
  21. ↑ Yang Kuisong (2008). "Reconsidering the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries". pp. 102–121. Digital object identifier:10.1017/S0305741008000064. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=1809176. (subscription required)summary at China Change blog
  22. ↑ Changyu, Li. "Mao's "Killing Quotas." Human Rights in China (HRIC). 26 September 2005, at Shandong University". http://hrichina.org/public/PDFs/CRF.4.2005/CRF-2005-4_Quota.pdf. 
  23. ↑ Zhang, Ming. "执政的道德困境与突围之道——"三反五反"运动解析" (in zh). Chinese University of Hong Kong. http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c092-200502054.pdf. 
  24. ↑ Liu, Yongfeng (2013-07-26). "那一年，中国商贾千人跳楼 全家共赴黄泉（图）" (in zh). http://history.sohu.com/20130726/n381843451.shtml. 
  25. ↑ Yang, Kuisong. "三反五反：资产阶级命运的终结" (in zh). https://talk.ifeng.com/project/special/guoqingjie/zuixin/detail_2012_09/28/17984862_0.shtml. 
  26. ↑ Luo, William (30 March 2018) (in zh). 半资本主义与中国 （Semi-Capitalism in China）. 世界华语出版社. ISBN 978-1-940266-12-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=ooIIDAAAQBAJ&q=%E8%82%83%E5%8F%8D%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8+5.3%E4%B8%87%E4%BA%BA+%E6%AD%BB%E4%BA%A1&pg=PA153. 
  27. ↑ Chen, Zhaonan (9 June 2018). "遇到中共就失憶！國民黨還能騙自己多久？" (in zh-TW). https://www.storm.mg/article/446880. 
  28. ↑ "Uneasy silences punctuate 60th anniversary coverage". China Media Project. http://cmp.hku.hk/2009/09/10/1740/. 
  29. ↑ Vidal, Christine (2016). "The 1957-1958 Anti-Rightist Campaign in China: History and Memory (1978-2014)". https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01306892/document. 
  30. ↑ King, Gilbert. "The Silence that Preceded China's Great Leap into Famine" (in en). https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-silence-that-preceded-chinas-great-leap-into-famine-51898077/. 
  31. ↑ Li, Jianglin (10 October 2016) (in en). Tibet in Agony. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-08889-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=s8RADQAAQBAJ&q=Xunhua+Incident&pg=PA46. 
  32. ↑ "Tibetan Uprising Day: Statement of the Dalai Lama". https://fas.org/sgp/congress/2004/s031004.html. 
  33. ↑ Bradsher, Henry S. (1969). "Tibet Struggles to Survive". pp. 750–762. Digital object identifier:10.2307/20039413. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20039413. 
  34. ↑ "LEARN A LITTLE ABOUT TIBET". http://www.umass.edu/rso/fretibet/education.html. 
  35. ↑ HAO, YAN (2000). "Tibetan Population in China: Myths and Facts Re-examined". pp. 11–36. Digital object identifier:10.1080/146313600115054. https://case.edu/affil/tibet/booksAndPapers/tibetan.population.in.china.pdf. 
  36. ↑ FISH, ISAAC STONE (2010-09-26). "Mao's Great Famine". https://www.newsweek.com/maos-great-famine-72301. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Chai, May-Lee (2012-05-31). "A Review of "Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–1962"" (in en). pp. 127–128. Digital object identifier:10.1080/00927678.2012.681276. 
  38. ↑ Wemheuer, Felix (2010). "Dealing with Responsibility for the Great Leap Famine in the People's Republic of China". pp. 176–194. Digital object identifier:10.1017/S0305741009991123. ISSN 0305-7410. JSTOR 20749353. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 DikÖtter, Frank (2010-12-15). "Opinion | Mao's Great Leap to Famine" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/16/opinion/16iht-eddikotter16.html. 
  40. ↑ Ó Gráda, Cormac (2011). "Great Leap into Famine: A Review Essay". In Dikötter, Frank. pp. 191–202. Digital object identifier:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2011.00398.x. ISSN 0098-7921. JSTOR 23043270. 
  41. ↑ Yang, Jishen (4 July 2017) (in zh). 天地翻覆: 中国文化大革命历史. 天地图书. https://books.google.com/books?id=4d4qDwAAQBAJ&q=%E5%9B%9B%E6%B8%85%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8+77560&pg=PT67. 
  42. ↑ "Twentieth Century Atlas - Death Tolls". http://necrometrics.com/20c5m.htm#Mao. 
  43. ↑ Yang, Jishen (in zh). 天地翻覆-中国文革大革命史. 天地图书有限公司. 
  44. ↑ Song, Yongyi (2002) (in zh). 文革大屠杀. Open Magazine Press (开放杂志出版社). ISBN 9789627934097. 
  45. ↑ Yang, Su (2006). ""文革"中的集体屠杀：三省研究" (in zh). https://www.modernchinastudies.org/cn/issues/past-issues/93-mcs-2006-issue-3/974-2012-01-05-15-35-10.html. 
  46. ↑ 46.00 46.01 46.02 46.03 46.04 46.05 46.06 46.07 46.08 46.09 46.10 46.11 46.12 46.13 Song, Yongyi. "Chronology of Mass Killings during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)" (in en). https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976. 
  47. ↑ Phillips, Tom (11 May 2016). "The Cultural Revolution: all you need to know about China's political convulsion" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/11/the-cultural-revolution-50-years-on-all-you-need-to-know-about-chinas-political-convulsion. 
  48. ↑ Song, Yongyi. "文革中"非正常死亡"了多少人？ ---- 读苏扬的《文革中中国农村的集体屠杀》". https://boxun.com/news/gb/z_special/2011/09/201109160825.shtml. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 "Interview: 'People Were Eaten by The Revolutionary Masses'" (in en). https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/china-cultrev-04292016134149.html. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Yan, Lebin. "我参与处理广西文革遗留问题" (in zh). http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html. 
  51. ↑ (in en) Chinese Sociology and Anthropology. M.E. Sharpe. 1986. https://books.google.com/books?id=CRc5AAAAIAAJ&q=qinghai+massacre. 
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Zhang, Zhishen (2014). "揭秘："文革"期间广州的"打劳改犯"事件" (in zh). http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0611/c372327-25133593.html. 
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  54. ↑ Li, Gucheng (1995). A Glossary of Political Terms of the People's Republic of China. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong. ISBN 9789622016156. https://books.google.com/books?id=J5QbQpQTegwC&q=Peng+Pai+incident+Cultural+Revolution&pg=PA307. 
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  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Chen, Baode; Li, Xuechao. "阳江"乱打乱杀事件"始末". http://www.yhcqw.com/30/9666.html. 
  57. ↑ Tan, Hecheng (2017) (in en). The Killing Wind: A Chinese County's Descent Into Madness During the Cultural Revolution. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-062252-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=0QCDDQAAQBAJ&q=daoxian+massacre+7696&pg=PA20. 
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  66. ↑ "The "Tiananmen Square massacre" is constantly referred to. Why have I never seen film or video footage of a single death? The cameras were there, were they not?". https://www.theguardian.com/notesandqueries/query/0,5753,-2317,00.html. 
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  71. ↑ 长胜轮23人惨案一主犯落网 大海盗张军红即将受审, (June 24, 2002)
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  74. ↑ "新疆叶城县处置一起袭击公安机关暴恐案件_要闻_新闻_中国政府网". http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2014-06/21/content_2705650.htm. 
  75. ↑ "Is the Kunming Knife Attack China's 9-11?". The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2014/03/is-the-kunming-knife-attack-chinas-9-11/. 

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